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Introduction

The island of Cyprus is located in the northeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea, south of Turkey, west of Lebanon and Syria, north of Egypt, and southeast of Greece. Its location made the island a crucial link in trade relationships between Greece and the Near East, the Levant, and Egypt and, as a result, Cyprus was always subject to myriad foreign influences.

The modern word "copper" is derived from the island's name, a nod to , which听also contributed to its broad听significance in the ancient Mediterranean world.听

in some ways matches the established chronologies for other Mediterranean cultures, but the development of the island followed its own trajectory. Absolute dates are hard to pinpoint, but scholars generally agree on the broad outline of , technologies, and culture.

Neolithic Period (Stone Age): 7,000-4,000 B.C.E.

The 听were seasonal hunters of pygmy elephants and pygmy hippopotami. A significant early settlement site听on the island, , dates to as early as 7,000 B.C.E. and was occupied until around 4,000 B.C.E.听Residents here lived in circular houses of mudbrick and stone with flat roofs and used vessels made of stone. This phase is divided into two sub-phases: the Aceramic Neolithic and the Ceramic Neolithic, based on the production and use of ceramic vessels. In the latter phase, which started around 5,500 B.C.E., residents of the island began using听Combed Ware pottery,听which had arrived with an influx of new settlers (1).听

Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age): 4,000-2,600 B.C.E.

A major earthquake around 3,800 B.C.E. heralded the end of the Neolithic and marked the beginning of the Chalcolithic Period. The number of settlements on Cyprus increased during the Chalcolithic period and although we can identify cultural changes, it is clear that this was a continuation of cultural development from the Neolithic period. Chalcolithic Cypriots continued using stone, but also began using copper for objects like chisels, hooks, and jewelry (2). This combination of materials contributes to the name of the period, which is a combination of the words "chalkos," meaning copper, and "lithos," meaning stone.听

Red-on-white pottery predominates听during the Chalcolithic period. Also common are clay and stone female figurines,听such as a limestone at the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles. The accentuated genitals on these figurines contribute to their association with fertility rites. Some figurines, however, are more abstract, including in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.听These other cruciform figurines听may have developed from the stump-like figurines of the preceding Neolithic period. Given their usual findspot in burials of women and children, cruciform figurines may be associated with fertility, like the female figurines.听

Early Bronze Age: 2,600-2,000 B.C.E.

The transition into the Early Bronze Age is hard to pinpoint exactly, as most of the evidence for Early Bronze Age culture on Cyprus听comes from tomb excavations and not the examination of actual settlements (3).听Some pottery from this period, such as听, shows a strong resemblance to Anatolian pottery (4) and may have been introduced by newcomers to the island.听Several objects found on Cyprus, such as听daggers from and beads from Egypt, also indicate the existence of trade contacts with both these civilizations. At this time, the main export of Cyprus was probably听copper, which听would likewise be the basis for later development of trade (5). Figurines, especially female figurines, continue to be popular on the island.听

Middle Bronze Age: 2,000-1,600 B.C.E.

This was a short transitional period between the Early and Late Bronze Age. Increasing trade relations with Egypt, Syria, and Palestine resulted in the growing importance of the harbor towns on the southern coast. Cypriot pottery began to be traded as well, although the main export continued to be copper (6). The construction of a number of fortresses on the island suggests a period of unrest, although its cause is not known.听

Late Bronze Age: 1,600-1,050 B.C.E.

At this time, a new period of peace in the eastern Mediterranean allowed for an unprecedented growth in trade. Cyprus's location in the Mediterranean听and its abundant copper resources attracted听 merchants who established themselves on the eastern and southern coasts of the island in order to conduct trade with the Near East. This increase in trade led to the development of the 听(7).听Increased trade also stimulated the development of new pottery styles stemming from earlier Bronze Age traditions. These include听补苍诲听听Wares, both of which were very popular as exports. Base Ring Ware was especially popular in Egypt, where numerous , which resemble inverted poppy heads and are thought to have been used to store and transport听opium, were exported (8).听Mycenaean Greek pottery, both imported and locally made (9),听also appears in great numbers on Cyprus, fulfilling the demand of the Cypriot market for the exuberant styles of Mycenaean pottery, especially the听Pictorial Style,听a famous example of which is the听听(10).听

Around 1,200 B.C.E., as Mycenaean civilization on the Greek mainl补苍诲听was collapsing, several major cities on Cyprus were destroyed. These destructions have been attributed to Mycenaean refugees听who fled their collapsed societies, as well as others who may have joined them in their travels. These invasions are sometimes听associated with , a group of raiders known mainly from Egyptian texts听but whose identity remains uncertain (11).听Following this destruction, a wave of听Achaean听immigrants settled on Cyprus, bringing with them the culture of mainland Greece and advanced metallurgical听techniques. There is also evidence for immigrants from Crete and Persia (12).听Many new cities appear at this time, which, according to legend, were founded by Greek heroes from (13).听Around 1,050 B.C.E. the Late Bronze Age was brought to a close by a disaster, possibly major earthquakes, which destroyed many of the island's cities (14).听

Cypro-Geometric Period: 1,050-750 B.C.E.

Following destruction on the island at the end of the Late Bronze Age, Cypriot residents听moved away from the interior of the island towards the coasts and founded several new cities. Immigrants to Cyprus, especially Greeks and Phoenicians, were attracted by the island's rich copper resources, as well as its by its supply of听timber. The influence of mainland Greece at this time can be observed in contemporary artifacts, yet a distinct separation was evident between the culture of the Greek settlers and native Cypriot traditions. Toward听the close of the听, these two cultures were blended together. Around 850 B.C.E., there was extensive contact with the听Phoenicians, who established several colonies on the island (15).听

Pottery at this time included white-painted wares, bichrome wares, and black slip wares. A in Cambridge is representative of this period.听Red slip wares appear later in the Cypro-Geometric period, and pictorial styles continue from the preceding Late Bronze Age. The influx of immigrants, as well as increased trade contacts resulted in blended styles, and an听Early Iron Age juglet from Cyprus听demonstrates some of the blend of local and foreign influences in Cypro-Geometric听art.

Cypro-Archaic Period: 750-500 B.C.E.

By the 听Cyprus was divided into a series of city-kingdoms. Around 700 B.C.E., the kings of Cyprus came under the rule of the .听Cyprus remained under Assyrian domination until after the collapse of the Assyrian Empire around 669 B.C.E.. Assyrian rule was lenient as long as tribute was paid听and Cypriot rulers听grew rich and pleasured in exotic goods, as听听on the east coast of the island indicate. Under the Assyrians,听contact between Cyprus and the Aegean world increased (16).

After the fall of the Assyrian Empire, Egypt grew in power听and by 570 B.C.E. Cyprus was essentially ruled by the Egyptians. Though Egyptian control only lasted for 25 years, Egyptian art styles, along with Ionian styles, had a marked influence on Cypriot sculpture, as well as Archaic sculpture in general (17).听In 545 B.C.E., Cyprus came under the control of the听.

Pottery in the Cypro-Archaic period is similar to that of the preceding period and included white-painted wares, bichrome wares, and black and red slip wares. A whimsical example of Cypro-Archaic pottery is a . This vase is shaped like a bull and unlike typical vases, it is filled through a hole in the foot and its contents poured through a hole in the bull's mouth.听Trick vases first appear in Cypriot art in the Cypro-Geometric period. This听

Classical and Later Cyprus: 500 B.C.E. and Beyond

After 499 B.C.E.,听Persian听rule became much harsher (18)听and Cyprus remained in Persian control despite attempts at liberation by the Greek city-states (19).听 (5th and 4th centuries B.C.E.) Cyprus remained under Persian control.听Cyprus finally regained relative freedom for a short time when the Macedonian king听听granted greater independence to the island. Following his death in 323 B.C.E., Cyprus was annexed by Egypt, under whose control it remained (20).听In 58 B.C.E. Cyprus became a Roman province (21).听

This essay was written to accompany a听collection of Greek artifacts at the 麻豆免费版下载Art Museum.听

Collections of Cypriot Antiquities Online:听

• 听at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York
• 听at the Institute of Cypriot Studies at SUNY Albany in New York

Footnotes

1. Vassos 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans听(London: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1982): 16-27.
2. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans:听30-37.
3. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans: 40.
4. Vassos 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听The Ancient Civilization of Cyprus听(New York: Cowles Education Corporation,1969): 38-39.
5. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans:听46.
6. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans: 52-60.
7. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans: 61-66.
8. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans: 73-76.
9. A. D. Lacy,听Greek Pottery in the Bronze Age听(London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1967): 167-168.
10. Emily Vermeule,听Mycenaean Pictorial Vase Painting听(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982): 6-9.听
11. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans:听82-86.
12. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans: 89-106.
13. Andreas Demetriou,听Cypro-Aegean Relations in the Early Iron Age听(Cyprus: Zavallis Litho Ltd., 1989): 88-93.
14. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans: 112.
15. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans: 114-127.
16. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans:128-136.
17. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans: 138-139.
18. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans: 152.
19. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans: 157.
20. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans:167.
21. 碍补谤补驳别辞谤驳丑颈蝉,听Cyprus from the Stone Age to the Romans: 177.